• Bruce Trigger A History Of Archaeological Thought

Bignamini, I. Archives and Excavations: Essays on the History of Archaeological Excavations in Rome and Southern Italy from the Renaissance to the Nineteenth Century. Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome 14.

. Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and of.

The consists of, or ecofacts and. Archaeology can be considered both a and a branch of the. In North America archaeology is a sub-field of, while in Europe it is often viewed as either a discipline in its own right or a sub-field of other disciplines.

Archaeologists study human and history, from the development of the first at in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology is distinct from, the study of fossil remains.

It is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the until the advent of literacy in societies across the world. Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding to reconstructing past to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves, and eventually of data collected to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. It draws upon, and.

Archaeology developed out of in Europe during the 19th century, and has since become a discipline practiced across the world. Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including, and, and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation.

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Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, and opposition to the excavation of human remains. Further information: The science of archaeology (from ἀρχαιολογία, archaiologia from ἀρχαῖος, arkhaios, 'ancient' and -λογία, -logia, ') grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism.

Antiquarians studied with particular attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts, as well as historical sites. Antiquarianism focused on the empirical evidence that existed for the understanding of the past, encapsulated in the motto of the 18th-century antiquary, Sir, 'We speak from facts not theory'. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a took place during the in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. In Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of - civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late., an Italian historian, created a systematic guide to the ruins and in the early 15th century, for which he has been called an early founder of archaeology. Antiquarians of the 16th century, including and, conducted surveys of the English countryside, drawing, describing and interpreting the monuments that they encountered.

First excavations. An early photograph of Stonehenge taken July 1877 One of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was and other in England. (1626–1697) was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous and other in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings.

He attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of and, both of which had been covered by ash during the. These excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, as well the unearthing of, had a big impact throughout Europe. However, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard; the importance of concepts such as and were overlooked. Development of archaeological method.

Artifacts discovered at the 1808 excavation by Sir and. The father of archaeological excavation was (1754–1810). He undertook excavations in from around 1798, funded by Sir. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of and, and the terms he used to categorize and describe them are still used by archaeologists today. One of the major achievements of 19th-century archaeology was the development of.

The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new and work of scholars like, and. The application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of and sites. In the third and fourth decades of the 19th-century, archaeologists like and began to put the artifacts they had found in chronological order. A major figure in the development of archaeology into a rigorous science was the army officer and, who began excavations on his land in England in the 1880s.

His approach was highly methodical by the standards of the time, and he is widely regarded as the first scientific archaeologist. He by type or ', and within types by date or 'chronologically'. This style of arrangement, designed to highlight the evolutionary trends in human artifacts, was of enormous significance for the accurate dating of the objects. His most important methodological innovation was his insistence that all artifacts, not just beautiful or unique ones, be collected and catalogued. Is another man who may legitimately be called the Father of Archaeology. His painstaking recording and study of artifacts, both in Egypt and later in, laid down many of the ideas behind modern archaeological recording; he remarked that 'I believe the true line of research lies in the noting and comparison of the smallest details.'

Petrie developed the, which revolutionized the chronological basis of. Petrie was the first to scientifically investigate the in Egypt during the 1880s. He was also responsible for mentoring and training a whole generation of Egyptologists, including who went on to achieve fame with the discovery of the tomb of 14th-century BC pharaoh. Pioneered in the early 20th century.

Pictured, are his excavations at, in October 1937. The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with public was that of, on the site of ancient, carried out by, and in the 1870s. These scholars individuated nine different cities that had overlapped with one another, from prehistory to the. Meanwhile, the work of Sir at in revealed the ancient existence of an equally advanced. The next major figure in the development of archaeology was Sir, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation and systematic coverage in the 1920s and 1930s brought the science on swiftly.

Wheeler developed the, which was further improved by his student. Archaeology became a professional activity in the first half of the 20th century, and it became possible to study archaeology as a subject in universities and even schools. By the end of the 20th century nearly all professional archaeologists, at least in developed countries, were graduates.

Further adaptation and innovation in archaeology continued in this period, when and became more prevalent and was developed as a result of increasing commercial development. Cast of the skull of the, uncovered in.

The Child was an infant of the species, an early form of The purpose of archaeology is to learn more about past societies and the development of the. Over 99% of the development of humanity has occurred within, who did not make use of, thereby no written records exist for study purposes. Without such written sources, the only way to understand prehistoric societies is through archaeology. Because archaeology is the study of past human activity, it stretches back to about 2.5 million years ago when we find the first stone tools –.

Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, such as the during the period, when the developed from the in and eventually into modern. Archaeology also sheds light on many of humanity's technological advances, for instance the ability to use fire, the development of, the discovery of, the beginnings of and the creation of.

Without archaeology, we would know little or nothing about the use of material culture by humanity that pre-dates writing. However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate cultures that can be studied using archaeology but historic, literate cultures as well, through the sub-discipline of. For many literate cultures, such as and, their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the classes, such as the or the of court or temple. The literacy even of has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into and be preserved there for posterity.

Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases, assumptions, cultural values and possibly deceptions of a limited range of individuals, usually a small fraction of the larger population. Hence, written records cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own biases, such as and. Often, archaeology provides the only means to learn of the existence and behaviors of people of the past. Across the millennia many thousands of cultures and societies and billions of people have come and gone of which there is little or no written record or existing records are misrepresentative or incomplete. Writing as it is known today did not exist in human civilization until the 4th millennium BC, in a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilizations. In contrast, Homo sapiens has existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of Homo for millions of years (see ).

These civilizations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they are open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a literate civilization many events and important human practices are not officially recorded.

Any knowledge of the early years of human civilization – the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities – must come from archaeology. In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political or cultural significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies. This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Mummy, and King Solomon's Mines.

When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see ). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of modern archaeology. Sign at in, There is no one approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late 19th century, the first approach to archaeological theory to be practiced was that of, which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the fact that they did, therefore emphasizing. In the early 20th century, many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of, etc.) followed the, compared the continuity between the past and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the 1960s, an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like and arose that rebelled against the established cultural-history archaeology.

They proposed a 'New Archaeology', which would be more 'scientific' and 'anthropological', with testing and the very important parts of what became known as. In the 1980s, a new movement arose led by the British archaeologists, and, which has become known as. It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasized the importance of a more self-critical theoretical. However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under debate.

Meanwhile, another theory, known as has emerged seeking to incorporate a focus on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and history. Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including, and, and. Video showing the different works in an archaeological recovery and analysis An archaeological investigation usually involves several distinct phases, each of which employs its own variety of methods. Before any practical work can begin, however, a clear objective as to what the archaeologists are looking to achieve must be agreed upon.

This done, a site is to find out as much as possible about it and the surrounding area. Second, an excavation may take place to uncover any archaeological features buried under the ground. And, third, the data collected from the excavation is studied and evaluated in an attempt to achieve the original research objectives of the archaeologists. It is then considered good practice for the information to be published so that it is available to other archaeologists and historians, although this is sometimes neglected. Remote sensing Before actually starting to dig in a location, can be used to look where sites are located within a large area or provide more information about sites or regions. There are two types of remote sensing instruments—passive and active.

Passive instruments detect natural energy that is reflected or emitted from the observed scene. Passive instruments sense only radiation emitted by the object being viewed or reflected by the object from a source other than the instrument. Active instruments emit energy and record what is reflected. Is an example of passive remote sensing. Here are two active remote sensing instruments: (Light Detection and Ranging) A lidar uses a laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) to transmit a light pulse and a receiver with sensitive detectors to measure the backscattered or reflected light. Distance to the object is determined by recording the time between the transmitted and backscattered pulses and using the speed of light to calculate the distance travelled. Lidars can determine atmospheric profiles of aerosols, clouds, and other constituents of the atmosphere.

A laser altimeter uses a lidar (see above) to measure the height of the instrument platform above the surface. By independently knowing the height of the platform with respect to the mean Earth's surface, the topography of the underlying surface can be determined. Field survey. Archaeological site The archaeological project then continues (or alternatively, begins) with a. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region.

Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods. Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible there. Pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the of coastal, and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.

Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artifacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ methods.) As with other forms of non-destructive archaeology, survey avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into, which may show surface features and/or artifact distribution. Inverted kite aerial photo of an excavation of a Roman building at Nesley near Tetbury in Gloucestershire.

The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanized transport, to search for features or artifacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as, and pits. If no materials are found, the area surveyed is deemed. Is conducted using attached to, or even. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites.

Aerial photographs are used to document the status of the archaeological dig. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. Growing above a buried man made structure, such as a stone wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as ) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision.

Aerial photographs taken at different times of day will help show the outlines of structures by changes in shadows. Aerial survey also employs, ground-penetrating wavelengths, and.

Can be the most effective way to see beneath the ground. Detect minute deviations in the caused by artifacts, some types of, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the of the soil are also widely used. Archaeological features whose electrical resistivity contrasts with that of surrounding soils can be detected and mapped. Some archaeological features (such as those composed of stone or brick) have higher resistivity than typical soils, while others (such as organic deposits or unfired clay) tend to have lower resistivity. Although some archaeologists consider the use of to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a 19th-century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation.

Metal detectorists have also contributed to archaeology where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the. Regional survey in uses geophysical or remote sensing devices such as marine magnetometer, or sub-bottom sonar. Excavation.

An archaeologist sifting for remains on. Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context. Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see ). Likewise, their, or with nearby objects and, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce which and features were likely used together and which may be from different of activity.

For example, excavation of a site reveals its; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artifacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures. Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research, in relative terms. Also, as a destructive process, it carries concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Again the percentage of a site excavated depends greatly on the country and 'method statement' issued. Is even more important in excavation than in survey.Sometimes large mechanical equipment, such as , is used in excavation, especially to remove the , though this method is increasingly used with great caution.

Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with or to ensure that all features are apparent. The next task is to form a and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the are normally excavated in portions to produce a visible for recording. A feature, for example a pit or a ditch, consists of two parts: the and the. The cut describes the edge of the feature, where the feature meets the natural soil.

It is the feature's boundary. The fill is what the feature is filled with, and will often appear quite distinct from the natural soil. The cut and fill are given consecutive numbers for recording purposes. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and sheets are filled in describing the of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.

Analysis. Main article: Once artifacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them. This process is known as, and is usually the most time-consuming part of an archaeological investigation.

It is not uncommon for final excavation reports for major sites to take years to be published. At a basic level of analysis, artifacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections. This comparison process often involves classifying them and identifying other sites with similar artifact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through, meaning that artifacts can be dated and their compositions examined. Bones, plants, and pollen collected from a site can all be analyzed using the methods of, and, while any texts can usually be. These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known, and therefore they contribute greatly to the understanding of a site. Computational and virtual archaeology.

Main article: are now used to build virtual of sites, such as the throne room of an Assyrian palace or ancient Rome. Is also used as an analytical tool, and digital models have been combined with calculations to verify whether or not certain structures (such as pillars) were aligned with astronomical events such as the sun's position at a. And can be used to better understand past social dynamics and outcomes.

Can be applied to large bodies of archaeological 'grey literature'. Drones Archaeologists around the world use drones to speed up survey work and protect sites from squatters, builders and miners. In Peru, small drones helped researchers produce three-dimensional models of Peruvian sites instead of the usual flat maps – and in days and weeks instead of months and years.

Drones costing as little as £650 have proven useful. In 2013, drones have flown over at least six Peruvian archaeological sites, including the colonial Andean town Machu Llacta 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) above sea level.

The drones continue to have altitude problems in the Andes, leading to plans to make a drone, employing open source software. Jeffrey Quilter, an archaeologist with Harvard University said, 'You can go up three metres and photograph a room, 300 metres and photograph a site, or you can go up 3,000 metres and photograph the entire valley.' In September 2014 drones weighing about 5 kg (11 lb) were used for 3D mapping of the above-ground ruins of the Greek city of.

The data is being analysed by the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Vienna. Academic sub-disciplines. Main article: aims to systematize archaeological measurement. It emphasizes the application of analytical techniques from physics, chemistry, and engineering. It is a field of research that frequently focuses on the definition of the chemical composition of archaeological remains for source analysis.

Archaeometry also investigates different spatial characteristics of features, employing methods such as space syntax techniques and as well as computer-based tools such as technology. Patterns may also be used. A relatively nascent subfield is that of archaeological materials, designed to enhance understanding of prehistoric and non-industrial culture through scientific analysis of the structure and properties of materials associated with human activity. Cultural resources management.

This section possibly contains. Please by the claims made and adding. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (March 2014) Archaeology can be a subsidiary activity within (CRM), also called heritage management in the United Kingdom. CRM archaeologists frequently examine archaeological sites that are threatened by development. Today, CRM accounts for most of the archaeological research done in the United States and much of that in as well. In the US, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the (NHPA) of 1966, and most taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways.

Along with other statutes, the NHPA mandates that projects on federal land or involving federal funds or permits consider the effects of the project on each. The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 has required planners to consider archaeology as a in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organizations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the. In England, ultimate responsibility of care for the historic environment rests with the in association with. In, and, the same responsibilities lie with, and the respectively. In France, the (The National Institute of Cultural Heritage) trains curators specialized in archaeology.

Their mission is to enhance the objects discovered. The is the link between scientific knowledge, administrative regulations, heritage objects and the public. Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavations indicate the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized.

CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding.

CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavour. Compounding the time pressure is the vetting process of site reports that are required (in the US) to be submitted by CRM firms to the appropriate (SHPO). From the SHPO's perspective there is to be no difference between a report submitted by a CRM firm operating under a deadline, and a multi-year academic project. The end result is that for a Cultural Resource Management archaeologist to be successful, they must be able to produce academic quality documents at a corporate world pace. The annual ratio of open academic archaeology positions (inclusive of, temporary, and non- tenure track appointments) to the annual number of archaeology MA/MSc and PhD students is disproportionate.

Cultural Resource Management, once considered an intellectual backwater for individuals with 'strong backs and weak minds,' has attracted these graduates, and CRM offices are thus increasingly staffed by advance degreed individuals with a track record of producing scholarly articles but who also have extensive CRM field experience. Popular views of archaeology. Permanent exhibition in a German, explaining the archaeological discoveries made during the construction of this building Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities.

Early archaeology was mostly done by upper class, scholarly men. This generalization laid the foundation for the modern popular view of archaeology and archaeologists. This generalization has been with western culture for a long time. Another popular thought that dates back to this era is that archaeology is monetarily lucrative. A large majority of the general public is under the impression that excavations are undertaken for money and not historical data. It is easy for the general public to hold this notion for that is what is presented to them through general media, and has been for many decades. The majority of the public view archaeology as being something only available to a narrow demographic.

The job of archaeologist is depicted as a 'romantic adventurist occupation'. To generalize, the public views archaeology as a fantasized hobby more than a job in the scientific community. The audience may not take away scientific methods from popular cinema but they do form a notion of 'who archaeologists are, why they do what they do, and how relationships to the past are constituted'. The modern depiction of archaeology is sensationalized so much that it has incorrectly formed the public's perception of what archaeology is. The public is often under the impression that all archaeology takes place in a distant and foreign land, only to collect monetarily or spiritually priceless artifacts. Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as and the, but the bulk of activities and finds of modern archaeology are not so sensational. Archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in carrying out modern surveys, and.

Some archaeologists refer to such off-the-mark portrayals as '. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support; the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed. Current issues and controversy Public archaeology. Excavations at the site of, in the, Spain, 2008 Motivated by a desire to halt looting, curb, and to help preserve archaeological sites through education and fostering public appreciation for the importance of archaeological heritage, archaeologists are mounting public-outreach campaigns. They seek to stop looting by combatting people who illegally take artifacts from protected sites, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting. Common methods of public outreach include press releases, and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation by professional archaeologists.

Public appreciation of the significance of archaeology and archaeological sites often leads to improved protection from encroaching development or other threats. One audience for archaeologists' work is the public. They increasingly realize that their work can benefit non-academic and non-archaeological audiences, and that they have a responsibility to educate and inform the public about archaeology. Local heritage awareness is aimed at increasing civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects, and better public presentations of archaeological sites and knowledge.

Bruce Trigger A History Of Archaeological Thought

The U.S.Dept. Of Agriculture, (USFS) operates a volunteer archaeology and historic preservation program called the Passport in Time (PIT). Volunteers work with professional USFS archaeologists and historians on national forests throughout the U.S. Volunteers are involved in all aspects of professional archaeology under expert supervision. Television programs, web videos and social media can also bring an understanding of underwater archaeology to a broad audience.

The Mardi Gras Shipwreck Project integrated a one-hour HD documentary, short videos for public viewing and video updates during the expedition as part of the educational outreach. Webcasting is also another tool for educational outreach. For one week in 2000 and 2001, live of the Shipwreck Project was to the as a part of the QAR DiveLive educational program that reached thousands of children around the world. Created and co-produced by and Marine Grafics, this project enabled students to talk to scientists and learn about methods and technologies utilized by the underwater archaeology team.

In the UK, popular archaeology programs such as and have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provisions for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did, and many local archaeological organizations operate within the framework to expand public involvement in smaller-scale, more local projects. Archaeological excavation, however, is best undertaken by well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately. Often this requires observing the necessary and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern with tight deadlines.

Certain charities and bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial and archaeological holiday tours. Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies, which is one reason why projects are starting to become more common.

Often archaeologists are assisted by the public in the locating of archaeological sites, which professional archaeologists have neither the funding, nor the time to do. Archaeological Legacy Institute (ALI), is a registered 501c3 non-profit, media and education corporation registered in Oregon in 1999. ALI founded a website, to support the organization's mission 'to nurturing and bringing attention to the human cultural heritage, by using media in the most efficient and effective ways possible.' Pseudoarchaeology. Of a king named. Object stolen from the Iraq National Museum in the looting in connection with the of 2003. Of archaeological sites is an ancient problem.

For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian were looted during. Archaeology stimulates interest in ancient objects, and people in search of artifacts or treasure cause damage to archaeological sites. The commercial and academic demand for artifacts unfortunately contributes directly to the trade. Smuggling of antiquities abroad to private collectors has caused great cultural and economic damage in many countries whose governments lack the resources and or the will to deter it. Looters damage and destroy archaeological sites, denying future generations information about their ethnic and cultural heritage. Indigenous peoples especially lose access to and control over their 'cultural resources', ultimately denying them the opportunity to know their past. Hodge the Director of the released a statement that the museum would no longer purchase or accept collections from looted contexts.

The first conviction of the transport of artifacts illegally removed from private property under the ) was in 1992 in the State of Indiana. Archaeologists trying to protect artifacts may be placed in danger by looters or locals trying to protect the artifacts from archaeologists who are viewed as looters by the locals.

Descendant peoples In the United States, examples such as the case of have illustrated the tensions between and archaeologists, which can be summarized as a conflict between a need to remain respectful toward sacred burial sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present.

As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of likely to be descended from those under study. Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.

While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession. Repatriation See A new trend in the heated controversy between groups and scientists is the of native to the original descendants. An example of this occurred on 21 June 2005, when community members and elders from a number of the 10 nations in the area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation near, to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods—some dating back 6,000 years.

It was not determined, however, if the remains were directly related to the Algonquin people who now inhabit the region. The remains may be of Iroquoian ancestry, since Iroquoian people inhabited the area before the Algonquin. Moreover, the oldest of these remains might have no relation at all to the Algonquin or Iroquois, and belong to an earlier culture who previously inhabited the area. The remains and artifacts, including, and, were originally excavated from various sites in the, including and the. They had been part of the 's research collection for decades, some since the late 19th century.

Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional and boxes lined with redcedar chips, and. An inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 80 boxes of various sizes are buried.

Because of this reburial, no further scientific study is possible. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement. Is another repatriation candidate that has been the source of heated debate.

See also. New Perspectives in Archaeology (1968). – A Short History of Archaeology (1991). – Introduction to Archaeology (1983).

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